Ronnie Vernooy and Bhuwon Sthapit
In the previous module, you learned about tools that allow farmers, working together with plant breeders and other researchers, to test newly acquired germplasm under real-life conditions. Hopefully, after one or more experimental cycles, some of these materials will have led to selection of varieties or lines with useful traits adapted to local farming conditions. It is also expected that more and more farmers in the immediate area and beyond will want to try growing these new materials as well. To keep the production of the new varieties and lines alive and dynamic, effective conservation of germplasm is required. Seed fairs with the participation of farmers and researchers are effective ways to improve access to new germplasm. Seed fairs can also be used to collect rare and unique varieties that enrich the collections of community seed banks.
In this module, you will learn how to conserve the newly acquired and selected germplasm, especially at the community level, as a way to guarantee access to and availability of seeds. The key questions in this module are: What are the differences between ex situ and in situ conservation? What are the strengths and weaknesses of each strategy? What options for in situ conservation have been developed and tested? What experiences and insights have been gained? What gaps still exist? Who are custodian farmers and what is their role in in situ conservation? What are the three major functions of community seed banks? What are the main components of an effectively functioning community seed bank? How can the roles of women be recognized and supported?
At the end of the module, you will be able to prepare a plan for the establishment of a community seed bank and strengthening of local conservation efforts.
At the end of this module, you will be able to:
Two complementary methods for the conservation of plant genetic resources exist: ex situ and in situ conservation. Ex situ conservation is the storing of samples of species outside their natural habitat or growth conditions, most notably in national or international gene banks, field genebanks and botanical gardens. In recent decades, ex situ conservation efforts have received considerable financial and technical support and their scientific development has progressed significantly. Farmers have little or no say in the governance and management of ex situ conservation agencies.
In situ conservation takes place on farm in the case of crops and “in the wild” (natural habitats or protected areas) for the wild relatives of these crops. Community seed banks (see section 3), a collective form of crop conservation, occupy an intermediate position between these two approaches. Farmers have a very strong say in most community seed banks.
Ex situ conservation is largely in the hands of professional curators, while in situ conservation is carried out by environmental, forest and wildlife officials (protected area managers) and by rural people, who are sometimes remunerated for their efforts but most often work on a voluntary basis. When rural households join forces to promote and practise in situ conservation through a well-designed strategy, one might refer to it as community-based biodiversity management. Ex situ and in situ strategies both have strengths and weaknesses. In recent years, interest has emerged in combining these strategies; however, this has proved to be easier said than done, considering the technical, organizational, and institutional (policy and legal) factors that come into play.
 Brush, S.B., 2000 Genes in the field: on-farm conservation of crop diversity Brush, S.B. (editor), Lewis, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA; International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Canada; International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, pp. 3–28 This chapter, in a groundbreaking book about in situ conservation (with a focus on on-farm conservation), defines two types of in situ conservation, the rationale for in situ conservation as a complementary strategy to ex situ conservation, the possible scope, market and non-market mechanisms for promotion, and a number of key institutional issues including farmers’ rights. |
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 Engelmann, F., Engels, J.M.M., 2002 Managing plant genetic diversity Engels, J.M.M., Rao, R., Brown, A.H.D., Jackson, M.T. (editors), International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, pp. 89–104 This chapter introduces the concept and practice of ex situ conservation and discusses achievements and challenges covering orthodox and non-orthodox seed species. |
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 Sthapit, B., Shrestha, P., 2012 On-farm management of agricultural biodiversity in Nepal: good practices −revised edition Upadhyay, M. (editors) , Bioversity International, Rome, Italy; Local Initiative for Biodiversity, Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal; Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal This revised and updated handbook contains 17 tools and methods (“good practices”) for carrying out on-farm management, including conservation of agricultural biodiversity. Tools and methods are described in clear language and illustrated with figures, diagrams, and photos. An introductory chapter sets the stage and provides a conceptual overview of on-farm conservation of local crop diversity. |
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Shrestha, P., Shrestha, P., Subedi, A., Peroni, N., de Boef, W.S., 2013 Community biodiversity management: defined and contextualized de Boef, W.S., Subedi, A., Peroni, N., Thijssen, M., O’Keeffe, E. (editors), Community biodiversity management: promoting resilience and the conservation of plant genetic resources. Routledge, Milton Park, UK, pp. 19–25 This chapter defines community biodiversity management and describes the key components for putting it into practice. Other chapters in the book give practical examples of these components from countries around the world. |
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Jaramillo, S., Baena, M., 2007 Ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources: training module International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Cali, Colombia This richly illustrated handbook describes a step-by-step method for carrying out ex situ conservation. Annexes include the International Code of Conduct for Germplasm Collecting and Transfer and a Checklist for Preparing Collecting Missions. |
Custodian farmers are men and women farmers who actively maintain, adapt, and disseminate agricultural biodiversity and related knowledge, over time and space, at farm and community levels and are recognized by community members for their efforts. They are the champions of in situ conservation. Custodian farmers are often actively supported in their efforts by family or household members. Although custodian farmers have been around since the beginning of agriculture, they seem to have been largely neglected by science and policy until recent years when a number of researchers have begun to pay more attention and tribute to them.
Custodian farmers are often active members of community gene and seed banks or are involved in other local efforts to conserve agricultural biodiversity. Local conservation efforts can be greatly enhanced by identifying custodian farmers and observing their methods of engagement with the wider community. How best to do this remains a challenge; a sound method is still under development.
 Sthapit, B., 2013 Custodian farmers of agricultural biodiversity: selected profiles from South and South East Asia Lamers, H., Rao, R. (editors) , Proceedings of the Workshop on Custodian Farmers of Agricultural Biodiversity, 11–12 February 2013, New Delhi, India. Bioversity International, New Delhi, India This report introduces the concept of custodian farmers, a typology of custodian farmers, and their main characteristics based on a review of literature and an analysis of case studies from South and Southeast Asia. The core of the report is a series of 20 profiles of women and men custodian farmers from India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, and Thailand. |
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 Grunberg, H., Meldrum, J., Padulosi, S., Rojas, W., Pinto, M., Crane, T.A., 2013 Towards a better understanding of custodian farmers and their roles: insights from a case study in Cachilaya, Bolivia Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, and Fundación PROINPA, La Paz, Bolivia This short document (33 pages) presents the findings of a unique research project that aimed to develop a better understanding of the attributes, roles, and responsibilities of custodian farmers in the Peruvian highlands. The concluding chapter offers some critical reflections on the method used, which is still in its infancy. It includes three custodian farmer stories and numerous illustrations. |
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Negri, V, 2013 On-farm conservation of neglected and underutilized species: status, trends and novel approaches to cope with climate change Padulosi, S., Bergamini, N., Lawrence, T. (editors), Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, pp. 211–218 This chapter describes a number of policies and other measures that support the efforts of Italian custodian farmers and gardeners to maintain landraces, not only of major crops but also of neglected and underutilized species. Benefits derived from these policies and measures are analyzed and recommendations made to strengthen on-farm conservation of local diversity. |
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Sthapit S. , 2013 Strengthening the role of custodian farmers in the national conservation programme of Nepal Meldrum, G., Stefano, P. and Bergamini, N. (editors) , Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, and Local Initiative for Biodiversity, Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal This workshop report documents presentations made and discussions held to deepen the understanding of the roles and contributions of custodian farmers, analyse the influence of social and gender on their motivations and efforts, and identify practical mechanisms to support custodian farmers. |
Communities have been engaging in seed-saving initiatives for about 30 years. These efforts have taken various forms and names, including community gene bank, farmer seed house, seed hut, seed wealth centre, seed savers group, association or network, community seed reserve, seed library, and community seed bank. Broadly speaking, community seed banks are local, mainly informal institutions whose core function is to maintain seeds for local use. Most community seed banks are managed by a small group of dedicated farmers, but they usually serve a large number of farmers at the community or district level.
Community seed banks can have three main functions: conserving plant genetic resources; enhancing access to and availability of local crop diversity (this includes the repatriation of local varieties that have disappeared); and promoting seed and food sovereignty. In practice, most community seed banks combine the first function with the second; in some cases, all three functions are combined.
Community seed banks generally store seeds of local varieties under ex situ conditions using a range of methods and equipment (except for roots and tubers which are kept in the field). They perform this conservation function with the aim of making seed available to the local community in the very short term — from one planting season to the next through mechanisms that usually require users to contribute to replenishing the stock each cycle. With regard to climate change adaptation, community seed banks can be instrumental in three important ways: by conserving a broad diversity of seeds of crops and crop varieties, by conserving seeds from plants that have a high capacity to survive under extreme weather conditions, and by accessing seeds from areas where plants have adapted to extreme weather conditions.
In terms of seed and food sovereignty, community seed banks are seen primarily as a political mechanism allowing farmers to keep control over their own seeds, a condition that is considered the basis of conservation and sustainable use. The sustenance of rural livelihoods, local cultural, and ethnic food traditions; the practical implementation of farmers’ rights; and community empowerment are other key aspects of this function.
Women are very active in most, if not all, community seed banks, often as the principal seed selectors and guardians and, in some cases, managers of all community seed bank functions from selection to distribution of seeds. However, their roles are not always recognized (let alone supported) in development policies, programs, and projects.
 Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B., Tjikana, T., Dibiloane, A., Maluleke, N., Mukoma, T. , 2013 Embracing diversity: inputs for a strategy to support community seedbanks in South Africa’s smallholder farming areas Report of field visits to Limpopo and Eastern Cape, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, and Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria, South Africa This report presents the findings of research in South Africa to answer the questions: To what extent are farmers still engaged in growing landraces? What are the main factors influencing the choice of crops and crop varieties? Is loss of diversity occurring? Are farmers experiencing the impact of climate change? If so, how are they responding? Are farmers saving seed on farm or at the community level? Are farmers exchanging seeds? With whom, when, and how? Are these practices changing and how? What do they think about a community seed bank? The report includes a novel framework for the assessment of the viability of establishing a community seed bank. |
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 Shrestha, P., Sthapit, B., Subedi, A., Poudel, D., Shrestha, P., Upadhyay, M., Joshi, B., 2012 On-farm management of agricultural diversity in Nepal: good practices –revised edition Sthapit, B., Shrestha, P., Upadhyay, M. (editors), Bioversity International, Rome, Italy; Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal; and Nepal Agricultural Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal, pp. 112-120 This chapter describes, step by step, the establishment and operation of the community seed bank in Kachorwa, Bara, Nepal. The seven-step implementation method is illustrated with examples from the field. The chapter also presents and analyzes benefits of the community seed bank as perceived by users. |
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 Vernooy, R., Sthapit, B., Galluzzi, G., Shrestha, P. , 2014 The multiple functions and services of community seed banks Resources 3(4), , pp. 636–656 Based on a literature review and field research, this article presents a novel comprehensive conceptual framework that focuses on the multiple functions and services provided by community-based seed-saving efforts, in particular community seed banks. The framework identifies three core functions: conserving genetic resources; enhancing access to and availability of diverse local crops; and ensuring seed and food sovereignty. It can be used for analysis of existing seed-saving initiatives and serve as a guide for the establishment of new community seed banks. It can also inform the development or revision of national policies or strategies to support community seed banks. The framework’s utility is illustrated by three case studies of community seed banks in Bangladesh, Guatemala, and Nepal. |
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Development Fund, 2011 Banking for the future: savings, security and seeds Development Fund, Oslo, Norway This short summary document (19 pages) synthesizes the findings of comprehensive country review studies of community seed banks. Countries include Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Honduras, India, Nepal, Thailand, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The review connects community seed banks with farmers’ rights and concludes with a number of policy recommendations to scale up community seed banks as key organizations to implement farmers’ rights and work toward sustainable agriculture. |
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Shrestha, P., 2013 Community seed banks in Nepal: past, present, future Vernooy, R., Chaudhary, P. (editors), Proceedings of a national workshop, 14–15 June 2012, Pokhara, Nepal. Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development, Pokhara, Nepal and Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, Especially chapters 3–11 In Nepal, community seed banks have a long and rich history. These proceedings of the first-ever national workshop about the history, evolution, and future of community seed banks in Nepal include achievements and challenges, six case studies of community seed banks that reflect the rich Nepali experiences, and the experiences of two public institutions that support community seed banks. |
Here is a quiz that will help you test your newly acquired knowledge. Once you have covered the content sections and completed the assigned readings, please answer the Germplasm conservation quiz.
Now that you are able to conserve germplasm, it is time to apply your knew knowledge. In the previous step, you field-tested newly acquired germplasm and selected the best materials. Now it is time to establish and maintain an effective conservation system to keep that germplasm alive and in good hands.
Please document this step of the research process by identifying the following:
The next module in our research process is Participatory evaluation of the whole research process. Let us begin!
